Yes. A 2024 population-based study reported that people living within one mile of a golf course had about double the odds of developing Parkinson’s disease compared with those living more than six miles away. Elevated odds extended to roughly three miles and were strongest for residents who shared a municipal water system with a golf course, especially in regions where groundwater is vulnerable. The research shows an association, not proof of causation, but it points to pesticide contamination of drinking water as a plausible pathway.
What did the study find?
The case-control study, published in JAMA Network Open and indexed on PubMed, examined 419 incident Parkinson’s cases and 5,113 matched controls (1991–2015) across southern Minnesota and western Wisconsin. Models adjusted for age, sex, race and ethnicity, index year, neighborhood income, and urban or rural status.
Living within 1 mile of a golf course was linked to a 126% higher odds of Parkinson’s versus living more than 6 miles away (adjusted OR 2.26; 95% CI 1.09–4.70).
Risk generally decreased with distance beyond about three miles. Associations were also stronger where drinking water connections overlapped with golf course areas:
- Residents in municipal water service areas that included a golf course had nearly double the odds of Parkinson’s compared with areas without a golf course (aOR 1.96; 95% CI 1.20–3.23).
- Compared with private wells, residents on municipal systems that served a golf course had higher odds (aOR 1.49; 95% CI 1.05–2.13).
- Odds were higher in water service areas located in vulnerable groundwater regions (aOR 1.82; 95% CI 1.09–3.03).
The study found association, not causation. Still, the spatial and water-system patterns suggest drinking water may be an exposure route for pesticides used on golf courses.
See the study summary from the American Parkinson Disease Association (APDA).
How could golf courses increase Parkinson’s risk?
Golf courses typically apply herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and fertilizers to maintain turf. Some pesticides can move offsite through surface runoff or leach into groundwater, especially in permeable soils or shallow aquifers. The study’s strongest associations occurred where residents shared municipal water systems with golf courses and where groundwater was vulnerable, which aligns with a drinking-water exposure pathway.
More broadly, multiple studies have linked certain pesticide exposures with higher Parkinson’s risk, although specific compounds and doses vary by setting. The golf-course study did not identify particular chemicals; it points to the need for targeted monitoring and exposure assessment.
What are the limitations of the evidence?
This is an observational, retrospective study, so it cannot prove causation. Key caveats include:
- Address timing: Home address was captured near diagnosis; duration of residence and earlier-life exposures were not fully assessed.
- Unmeasured factors: Occupation, head trauma, and genetic susceptibility were not included, and these can affect Parkinson’s risk.
- Regional scope: Findings come from Minnesota and Wisconsin; turf management practices and pesticide rules differ by region and country.
- Absolute risk: The study reports relative odds, not individual absolute risk. Parkinson’s remains uncommon overall, though risk rises with age.
Despite these limitations, the consistency of proximity, water-service overlap, and groundwater vulnerability strengthens the plausibility of an environmental contribution.
Does this mean golfers or grounds crews are at higher risk?
The study examined where people lived, not whether they played golf or worked on courses. It cannot answer occupational risk directly. However, other research links occupational pesticide exposure to increased Parkinson’s risk in some settings. Golf course superintendents and groundskeepers can face higher direct exposures than nearby residents, so standard protections (closed transfer systems, proper PPE, label-compliant application, and drift/runoff controls) are important. More occupational studies are needed specifically for golf course workers.
What can you do if you live near a golf course?
- Identify your water source. If you are on public water, read your utility’s annual Consumer Confidence Report for pesticide monitoring results and any violations.
- If you use a private well, test it. Follow local guidance and consider testing for common pesticides and related contaminants. The CDC has basics on private well testing.
- Consider certified filtration. For many organic pesticides, activated carbon or reverse osmosis systems can reduce levels; choose devices certified to relevant NSF/ANSI standards and maintained per manufacturer guidance. See NSF’s guide to water filters.
- Engage locally. Ask course management about integrated pest management (IPM), buffer zones, runoff controls, and chemical inventories, and encourage practices that reduce pesticide use and protect waterways.
- Discuss personal risk with your clinician. Share your exposure concerns and family history; they can advise on monitoring and referrals.
What does this mean for public health and policy?
The findings add to evidence that environmental exposures contribute to Parkinson’s risk and that drinking water may be a critical pathway in some communities. Practical steps include better pesticide-use transparency, targeted monitoring of vulnerable aquifers, enhanced treatment where needed, and adoption of IPM on courses. Further research should track lifetime residence and occupation, measure specific pesticide biomarkers and water contaminants, and evaluate mitigation strategies.